Collaboration in Teaching

Question: Discuss about the Collaboration in Teaching. Answer: Characteristics of collaboration Collaboration is the heart of a teaching profession. There were five characteristics of collaboration contributing to the professional teacher development. Collaboration is voluntary which means teachers should collaborate between them without any external forcing. They have to practice their own comfortable and particular style of interactions with co- workers and students. This will improve the teaching process as unnecessary forcing may make them less interest and less confident, thus affecting the teaching process. Secondly, collaboration necessitates parity between participants (Parkay, 2016). It involves valuing each and every teachers contributions equally and giving them with equal power to make decisions in their teaching process. They should be given independence in guiding the students and the decisions of all the teachers should be considered equally. Thirdly, collaboration should be based on mutual teaching objectives. It is not necessary for the professional teachers to share all the goals for the sake of collaborating between others and it is enough to share only specific as well as more important goals to draw their shared attention. The teachers should collaborate with common objectives among them to enhance their professionalism. Ultimately, their aim should be to enhance student achievement (Quick, 2009). Fourthly, collaboration always depends upon shared responsibilities for participating in teaching and in decision- making process (Parkay, 2016). It means the collaborators should assume the responsibilities of participating in the teaching activities with decision- making process. The teachers should develop decision- making and problem- solving skills to be professionally efficient. The next characteristics of collaboration involve sharing the teaching and educational resources. Sharing the resources such as time, educational materials and knowledge is a key principle in professionalism (Vacilotto, 2007). This will promote the feelings of ownership among professional teachers. Friend (2011) suggests that the persons who collaborate among other persons should share their responsibility for teaching outcomes. The professionals should work for a same teaching goal under same organizational pattern to achieve outcomes. A professional should take responsibility for either a positive out come or for a negative outcome. These characteristics of collaboration should be adapted by all the teachers to become an effective professional. Collaboration will promote professionalism among teachers that ultimately increases teaching outcomes. Approaches of teacher collaboration This part evaluates the four methods of teacher collaboration as peer- coaching, involvement by staff, team- teaching as well as co- teaching. The first technique of peer coaching involves the process of learning of the teacher from their peers or co- teachers. In olden days, experienced teachers will be teaching and guiding the newer teachers. But, it is insufficient in current era and requires mastered teaching and hence formalized peer- coaching helps to extend the collaboration between more teachers (Parkay, 2016). It helps the teachers to grow professionally and learn by observing others teaching and providing appropriate and constructive feedback. It helps the professional teachers to learn collaboratively in psychologically safer environment. It strives to create the professional educator communities and makes all the teachers in coaching team to be collaborative. Developing coaching teams and establishing coaching environment will make all the teachers to collaborate and eval uate each other (Scott, 2008). By this teacher interaction and collaboration, peer- coaching techniques will improve professional morale and teaching effectiveness, thus promoting professionalism in teaching. The second method to develop collaboration between teachers is staff development. Staff development encourages the teachers to design their own staff- development program that makes them as collaborator, risk- taker and experimenter in the teaching process. It helps the teachers to collaborate with their co- teachers of same grade that will motivate them to share ideas, opinions, suggestions, interventions and solutions to problems in teaching. This will help the teachers to discuss and practice instructional theories, solve problems that had occurred in the classroom, plan curriculum, get advice, receive encouragement and generally reflect (Vacilotto, 2007). Team teaching is another method to encourage collaboration. In this, the teachers will share their responsibilities in two or many classes and divide subjects between them with one preparing for few subjects and the other for remaining subjects. They may divide their classes based on the performance of the students. It develops the teachers to be more competent in their teaching areas leading to professional development (Lieberman, 2008). It could be practiced by the collegial- support team to promote safer professional development. The fourth approach of co-teaching involves teaching the students by two/more teachers in same classroom. It promotes strength of the teachers and increases learning opportunities for the students (Friend, 2008). It is of many types as one- teaches one-assist, station, parallel and alternative teaching. Reference Friend, M. (2008). Interactions: Collaboration Skills for School Professionals. Boston. M.A: Pearson Lieberman, A. Pointer Mace, D. (2008). Teacher learning: the key to education reform: Journal of Teacher Education. 59(3): 226-234 Parkay, F. W. (2016). Becoming a teacher (9th ed.). Boston. M.A: Pearson Quick, H., Holtzman, D. Chaney, K. (2009). Professional development and instructional practice: Conceptions and evidence of effectiveness: Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR. 14(1): 45-71. Scott, V. (2008). Peer Coaching: Implication for Teaching and Program Improvement. Retrieved from https://www.kpu.ca/sites/default/files/Teaching%20and%20Learning/TD.1.3_Scott%26Miner_Peer_Coaching.pdf Vacilotto, S. (2007). Peer Coaching in TEFL/TESL Programmers: ELT Journal. 61(2): 153-160.

Street pharm essay(why you should buy this book) Essay Example

Street pharm essay(why you should buy this book) Paper Street Pharm Author: Allison Van Diepen Have you ever wondered what the life of a young drug-dealer is like? Well look no further, this is the book you have to read! This realistic-fiction novel is about a young man named Tyrone Johnson who is the local king pin in in his suburban New York neighbor- hood. What was Ty going to be when he grew up? Well he knew what his mother didnt want him to be. A drug-dealer, free-wheeler, player, hater, a down- right dog! Thats what his father was, before he went to Jail. Ty gets kicked out of Sheeps-bay high and is transferred to a new school, Les Chancellor. There he meets a beautiful girl named Alyse. He falls for her but she is a distraction to him and his work. He feels like he puts her in danger. But his emotions are so high he doesnt know whether to leave everything and go with Alyse, or forget about her for good and move on. You must pick up a copy of this novel because is so breath-taking and full of excitement, yet it is full of thrilling and love scenes. Once you read you wont be able to stop because it will have your attention and every detail will be pictured in your head. We will write a custom essay sample on Street pharm essay(why you should buy this book) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Street pharm essay(why you should buy this book) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Street pharm essay(why you should buy this book) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Also if you like reading about violence, drugs and teen related issues then his is the book for you. It has suspense full parts that leave you wanting for more. Another reason why you should read this great novel is because it has this realistic feeling to it you can actually feel the emotions being said in the novel it will touch you in an unexplainable way. Here are some good feed-backs for the author: It takes place in a New York neighbor- hood. The main character Tyrone Johnson was known as the local drug-dealer. Ty is basically taking over the family business which his father started. But Ty was smarter than his father, instead of waisting his oney on nice cars, hoes, and a pimped out crib. He rode the bus, was single, and lives with his mother l loved the detail she put into the book, it grabbed my attention the whole time- Berenita Sandoval The novel has a very good detailed manner it immediately grabs the readers attention. Even though this isnt your type of book then Just read the novel and see how it goes. Many people have read these types of novels and have fallen in love with the genre. It creates this energy that when you read this book all the emotions, details, settings, and even the characters ctions make you believe someone is actually living this book/novel. The second reason why this novel should be read is because it would definitely interest a young readers mind, especially those living in the city or the hood. It would affect them directly or indirectly for those kids who are affected by drugs in their community. This novel could change some-ones way of thinking or changed their prospective on a subject about the book or in their personal life. Here are, some negative feed-back for the author: Decent. I dont think so. It felt very forced to me. Like I knew the whole time the book was going to end the way it did. She made so obvious I didnt even wanna finish the book. Random citizen This book was awful. How is a white lady from Canada think me! This was completely stereotypical and the language was ridiculous. This book was a huge waist of my time. Judge-mental freak The negative criticism is mostly because the author was white. What if the ending was way off from what you thought! Maybe if you would have finished the book then you could have experienced a different ending to the novel. Maybe the author miss-lead you when in reality she was covering up the ending the whole time and you were surprised it didnt end your way. All authors have different minds ways of creating books/novels. If all them were the same then no one would read books because they all sound the same. Overall, this novel is one the best youll ever read because the way the author described some of the settings and the way she also give so much life to characters. It has given the book life. Once you open this noel it will blow you far away into a trance that youll never escape. Van Diepen has given this novel her best because its her first ever published and with that energy to write a book it will give you an idea of she is made of. This is why you need to pick-up a copy of this novel today, because it is a novel many will read if they are given the chance. It will touch them in a way, which will give them a life lesson to hold on forever. Just by reading a simple ordinary novel with extremely awesome scenes! Film video: Street pharm 1st chapter: What do you want to be when you grow up? Thats what most kids got asked. Not me. Mom always asked what I wasnt going to be. And you know what she wanted me say- A drug-dealer, free-wheeler, player, hater, a down-right dog! Thats what my father was. When I came from school mom was on the couch watching Dr. Phil, as usual. How was school baby? No way was I going to tell her that I got kicked out. Really ass-to-the-curb kicked o ut this time. Starting Monday I was supposed to show up at some alternative school. mfou working hard? mieah. Sweet clueless mom never noticed that I hadnt carried a book since the ninth grade. Theres beef -patties in the oven. I checked the clock. 3:37 pm. Shed be getting up in about three, getting ready for fifteen, and out the door in twenty. When the commercial came on mom went to her room. I attacked the patties only stopping to add more ketchup. A few minutes later, she came back into the kitchen in her grocery store uniform, her name tag already pinned on like she was proud or something. mfou working tonight? she asked me I gave up my check for a kiss while guzzling o. J. , and she threw on her coat and aint worked there a day of my life- but the manager owed me. He was one of my customers. Time to get down to brothers real bread-and-butter! I took out my cell and speed-dialed sonny. Ty! What the fucks going on? Whyd you turn off your cell? Mind your business. Whats going on? l need your help son. Tonight we got us some deliveries. Already got some. Well, I got more for you. Go on. I wrote the stuff on my palm pilot. Hold up, I said, whos this Schultz guy? A new customer I met last week. Told him we was getting a shipment with the hottest shit this side of the bogota. He gonna drop 5 gs.

FORP News Letter †November 13 †2005

FORP News Letter – November 13 – 2005 Free Online Research Papers FORP News Letter November 13 2005 As of writing this letter we have been online 12 weeks, 11 hours, and 59 min. Thank you to everyone who is contributing to make this an excellent resource and a growing community of students seeking out examples of high quality work. Also, a special thanks to keto and drgold for helping us out with some bug issues relating to the sites functionality. If not for you guys we would be still doing things the hard way! We are currently at 562 papers! 500 papers was a major goal for me when I first thought of this site. I never thought it would take off this fast with so many people contributing. There are still a fair number of people contributing as anonymous users and that is ok but I would hope eventually they sign up for accounts so that we can give them credit for their efforts. Thanks again to everyone who is making this site happen and I hope we continue to grow over the next 3 months. Admin Research Papers on FORP News Letter - November 13 - 2005Hip-Hop is ArtThe Project Managment Office SystemLifes What IfsThe Hockey GameStandardized TestingDefinition of Export QuotasRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever Product

Democracy and Citizens essays

Democracy and Citizens essays Democracy, in its simplest form, means all power to all the people above other issues. It means that society is run by its citizens, rather than the rich (aristocracy) an individual (despotism) a royal family (monarchy), or a clergy (theocracy). For survival democracy needs freedom of information and expression, equality between its citizens, and peace. Many people think that nations are either democratic or not - like a light switch that can only be on or off. There are different levels, like a dimmer switch. The demand for democracy is strong, and democracy's enemies (mainly aristocrats - the rich) have survived by compromise, creating governments with a low standard of democracy that give the people as little power as possible without causing a revolt. The more of a threat the people pose to the aristocrats, the more freedom and power they will be able to take. We have been lulled into security - by our pursuit of non-issues like animal rights and abortion, our fear of each other, and our plain hopelessness and apathy. The result is a semi-liberated netherworld where all are created equal until inheritance, where freedom of the press belongs to those who own a press, and where we fight wars for peace. It is a higher standard of democracy than Athens, but still not good enough. Higher up the standard is direct democracy (rule by the people without representatives) and at the very top is anarchy - a society so democratic that no authority is needed. Some talk of the social contract, and the consent of the governed. It makes sense that a rich person consents to being rich if they didn't they'd burn their money but who consents to being poor? People need to take an active role in their government. All too often, through our complacency, we tend to let other people make decisions for us in our best interests. In a democratic society, this proposition is dangerous. Every American over the age of 18 (as the age l...

Castle's Family Restaurant Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Castle's Family Restaurant - Research Paper Example However, smaller from should outsource such activities and the choice of the vendor should be done after evaluation of its past performance. Introduction Castle’s Family Restaurant, a small group with under 350 workers has eight units which require the HR manager to travel frequently to each of the units to interact with the workers. Human resources are the greatest asset of the firm and an organization would need to invest in it to develop the capabilities. In the hospitality sector particularly, human resources must have unique capabilities to be able to deliver excellent service. Staff retention is a critical issue in the hospitality sector. The organization is considering implementation of HRIS which could help the organization save costs while reducing staff turnover. This study evaluates the types of HRIS that would best help the organization to retain staff. Stage I Business Assessment Family restaurant, a part of the hospitality sector, is a high potential, high-compet ition sector. While demand is high, staff attrition rate is also high. Prolonged job stress and high employee burn-out lead to high staff turnover in the sector (Buick & Thomas, 2001). It thus becomes absolutely essential for Castle’s Family Restaurant to attract, motivate and retain staff. This perhaps prompts the HR and the operations manager to travel to each of the eight restaurants every week to take care of scheduling, recruiting, hiring, and interacting with the staff. While the number of staff is not very high, managing staff at eight different locations can be challenging. It is essential to satisfy their queries and listen to them. Travelling every week is not cost-effective apart from the time taken in travelling. Therefore an alternative feasible solution has to be devised. Identification of problems The main HR functions that need attention at Castle’s Family Restaurant include task scheduling, recruitments, payroll preparations and answering the questions of the staff. While each of these tasks can be handled through the implementation of HRIS, staff retention is critical to service in this sector. Most of the staff is part-time, which adds to the challenge of retaining staff. The hospitality industry requires staff with strong practical skills and soft people management skills rather than analytical skills (Connolly & McGing, 2006). The staff has queries of day-to-day operations as well as queries related to personal issues. Each of these needs to be addressed timely as it makes the staff feel their concerns are addressed and paid heed to. Staff retention implies staff motivation and talent management to ensure continuity. Listening to their concerns is a great motivator and a good listener is one who encourages the people to express. Staff retention is essential to ensure service quality in the hospitality sector. Lower staff attrition also results in higher base of organizational knowledge and less deterioration of experiential l earning (Bontis & Fitz-Enz, 2002). Constant turnover also impacts the dynamics of staff interaction. High staff turnover also results in recurring costs in recruitment and training. HRIS needs assessment HR functions have now been transformed to digital formats and technology is yet to be optimally

Executive Compensation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Executive Compensation - Essay Example There is an ongoing public indignation over the idea that there are executives who are rewarded handsomely in firms that are experiencing financial losses, facilities closure and employee dislocations in the form of cuts in pay and benefits and forced terminations. At a time when the public is looking for someone or something to blame, is it correct to cap the current executive compensation in the US? This paper will explore this possibility and its impact on American capitalism, whether such a move would be beneficial or harmful to the economy. In the United States, the capitalistic system rewards high risks with high rewards and that executives are paid astronomical amounts for their skills and capabilities. The executive compensation in the US consist the total rewards received by the top-level executives of a corporation. These high-ranking officers include the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief operations officer (COO), the chief financial officer (CFO), as well as the other executives who hold the highest level of management in a firm. The total rewards, meanwhile, is generally consisted of salaries, bonuses, incentive payments, deferred compensation plans, stock options, and the direct provision of goods and services. The stock option for executives could surpass the worth the direct cash payments such as salaries and bonuses. Additional perks may include packages that consist housing, personal staff, transportation and other personal expenses of the top executives, which are normally shouldered by employees. A ccording to Alan Greenspan (2007), the former chairman of the US Federal reserve: A [US] CEO’s compensation has, on average, been tied closely to the market value of his or her firm†¦ CEO compensation at such large US corporations reportedly rose by 10 percent annually between 1993 and 2006, triple the 3.1 percent annual increase of earnings of private-company production or nonsupervisory workers. (p.

Marketing Plan Essay Example for Free

Marketing Plan Essay Marketing Plan is defined as written plan that is used to guide an organization’s marketing activities for a period of two years or less. It is quite detailed and specific, and it helps an organization coordinate the many steps and people that play a role in marketing. * Marketing plan is also called as tactical plans or short-term plans. * Strategic plan or a long-term plan is a three-year or more that is more general and less detailed than tactical plans. REQUIREMENTS FOR AN EFFECTIVE MARKETING PLAN 1. Fact-based It must build on previous research and analysis. A plan is established on managerial hunches is like a house of cards; if one key assumption is proven wrong, the whole plan falls apart. 2. Organize and coordinate It must be as specific and detailed as possible. It needs to clearly identify the departments and people responsible for specific tasks; it must also describe the promotional and other materials that are required. The required level of sportsmanship should be clarified, including the quality and level of effort and service from all involved. 3. Programmed It must be orchestrated so that activities are carefully sequence. Timing is vitally important in marketing. Thus, a marketing plan must have a detailed, staged timetable. 4. Budgeted Every marketing plan must be budgeted carefully. In fact, several tentative budgets should be prepared before the organization decides on a final figure. 5. Flexible Unforeseen events will happen. Therefore, no plan should be cast in stones. The marketing plan should be adjusted if it appears that objective will definitely not be achieved, or if there are unexpected competitive moves. Contingency planning must built in. This means allowing some room in the plan and marketing budget to take care of unexpected events. 6. Controllable Making a plan work as it was originally designed is perhaps even more difficult than developing it in the first place. Every plan must contain measurable objectives and ways to determine, during the planning period, if adequate process is being made toward satisfying these objectives. The plan must also define who is responsible for measuring progress. 7. Internally consistent and interrelated Most parts of a marketing plan is interrelated and, therefore, need to be consistent. For example, advertising, internet marketing and other promotions must work together for better for greatest impact using integrated marketing communication (IMC). 8. Clear and simple Being detailed does not have to mean difficult. It is not enough that the plan’s architect is the only one who understands it. The efforts of many go into creating a successful marketing plan. Objectives and tasks must be clearly communicated. Possible areas of overlap, confusion, or misunderstanding needs to be eliminated. BENEFITS OF HAVING A MARKETING PLAN 1. Activities matched with target markets. Assuming that a segmented marketing strategy is being used, a plan ensures that the activities are focused only on chosen target markets. One of the steps in writing the plan is detailing the marketing mix (8 Ps) on a market-by-market basis. Budget waste from appealing to unattractive target markets is avoided. 2. Consistency of objectives and target-market priorities. The questions: â€Å"How far should the plan go to meet objectives?† and â€Å"Should each target market get equal attention?† are resolved by a good marketing plan, which ensures that the level of effort is consistent with the marketing objectives for each target markets and the relative size of each market. The more ambitious is the objective, the greater the required effort. 3. Common terms of reference. A marketing plan details activities for many people both within and outside an organization. A good plan provides common terms of reference for all. It carefully coordinates their efforts. It improves communication among those responsible for marketing and is great help in orienting outside advisors such as advertising agency staff and website designers. 4. Assistance in measuring marketing success A marketing plan is a tool of marketing management, because it provides the basis for controlling and evaluating marketing activities. 5. Continuity in long-term planning Marketing plans complement strategic market plans and provide a link between short and long-term planning. They ensure that an organization’s long-term goalsare always kept in focus. Because they are carefully rationalized and detailed, marketing plans remain useful even if their originators leave the organization. CONTENTS OF A MARKETING PLAN There are three parts to a marketing plan: the execurive summary, the marketing plan rationale, and the implementation plan. 1. Executive Summary is a brief summary of the major highlights of the marketing plan; it is for the organization’s executives to quickly review. The executive summary should be no more than two to four pages long and should be easy to read. It is called â€Å"executive† because executives can pursue it quickly, but still get it a ggod grasp of the main reason, intiatives, and costs for the marketing plan. A good approach is to sum up the highlights of each of the main sections of the markting plan rationale and implementation plaan. These highlights can be presented in the order in which they appear in the plan, according to the five key questions in the hospitality and travel marketing system. 2. Marketing plan rationale explains the facts, analyses and assumptions upon which the marketing plan is based. It describe the marketing strategies, target markets, positioning approaches, and marketing objectives seleccted for the plaaning period. The marketing plan rationale provides a historic record for those putting together future marketing plans and strategic market plans. It is also very helpful to outside advisors, such as advertising agencies and website designers, who are asked to handle only one specific task. The marketing plan rationale has two parts: a. Situation Analysis Highlights (where are we now?) is a study organizations strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities. It plays an important role in constructing marketing plans because marketing plans must build upon the organization’s marketing strengths, address major competitive weaknesses, and capitalize on identified opportunities. * Environmental Analysis The marketing plan should list and briefly discuss the major opportunities and threats presented. It should explain what impact is expected during the planning period. * Location and Community Analysis New factory or plant openings, major events to be staged, business closures or workforce reductions, residential development, industrial expansion, and new highway construction or redesign are just a few things that can have a very positive or negative effect on an organization or destination in short time span. The events should be identified and summarized in the marketing plan, and their impacts reviewed. * Primary Competitor Analysis It should also highlight each side’s competitive strengths and weaknesses. * Market Potential Analysis Should include the highlights of special marketing research studies. * Services Analysis The market plan should discuss such development projects and how they will be integrated with other marketing-mix (8P) activities. * Marketing Position and Plan Analysis The marketing plan and position analysis does just that; it goes over what has been done before so important lessons can be learned for future marketing planning. A synopsis of the organization’s current positioning in its target markets and the effectiveness of activities in previous marketing plans is presented. * Major Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Constraints This part of the plan is similar to summary. It forces marketers to consolidate all key situation analysis and other research findings. It should involve attaching relative importance weightings and priorities to identified strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and constraints. b. Selected Marketing Strategy (Where would we be like to be?) This details the strategy that the organization will follow in the next one to two years. It explains the facts, assumptions, and decisions influence strategy choices. * Market Segmentation and Target markets The plan should briefly review the segmental approach and characteristics used to divide the market. Some statistics should be presented on the size of the market segments and the organization’s penetration or market share of each. The selected target markets should be discussed, along with the reasons for choosing them. It is also useful to briefly review why other market segments are not being targeted wnd how the chosen target markets will interact with each other. * Marketing Strategy The plan should explain the analysis and assumptions that supported these choices. * Marketing Mixes The market plan should review these individually for each target market. A more detailed list of activities comes later in the implementation plan. * Positioning Approaches The marketing plan should explain how the positioning approaches will be reflected in each marketing-mix element (8 Ps). * Marketing Objectives The objectives for each target market should be clearly stated. They have to be result-oriented, stated in numerical terms, and time specific. A good idea suggested by some experts is to break up each objective into milestones. This means dividing each objective into sub-objectives with specific time deadlines. 3. Implementation plan (action plan) details the activities, marketing budget, staff responsibilities, timetable, and method of controlling, measuring and evaluating activities. The function of implementation plan is to specify all the required activities , responsibilities, cost and budget, time schedules, and control and evaluation procedures. It is sometimes called an action plan. A. Activities Plan (How do we get there?) It details the marketing mixes for each target market selected. It provides the specifics on the entire task required for each mix element of each target market. * Activities by Target Market All plan activities should be listed and described. It is best to do this separately for each marketing-mix element, and to arrange task in a time schedule based on when they will be initiated. * Responsibilities for Activities In most cases, several departments or divisions, many organization employees, and some outside firms will play a role in implementing the marketing plan. They must know what is expected in each one of them. A good way to do this is to know the description of responsibilities into the marketing plan and to identify each responsible party in the timetable and activity schedule. * Timetable and Activity Schedule This is a key part of the plan that is frequently referred to as the plan is being implemented. It should show each activity’s starting and completion dates, where the activity is to be carried out, and the persons responsible for the activity. B. Marketing Budget (How do we get there?) Every marketing plan should include a detailed budget that outlines how much will be spent on each of the 8 Ps or marketing-mix element for each target market. Knowing how much money to allocate to marketing as a difficult decision, but a good marketing budget should meet these four criteria: * Comprehensive All marketing activities or task or task are identified and estimated. * Coordinated Budgeting for all activities or tasks is carefully coordinated to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort and to maximize the synergy among budget items. * Practical The budget specifies the sources of the money and human resources for the marketing activities and tasks. * Realistic Marketing budget cannot be set in isolation from other departments’ priorities and activities. They have to be related to the organization’s resources and position in the industry sector. WAYS TO ESTABLISH MARKETING BUDGETS The most effective is known as the objective-and-task or empirical method. This process follows the zero-based budgeting idea, which means that every budget starts at zero each year and then builds up activity. A multi-stage budgeting process is used. The advantages of four budgeting approaches are as follows: 1. Historical or Arbitrary Budgeting This is a very simple approach. A certain amount or percentage is added to the last marketing budget. The budget increase is often set close to the economy’s rate inflation. 2. Rule-of-thumb Budgeting This approach is also known as the percentage-of-sales or heuristic method. In this method, the budget is calculated using an established industry sector average, and is usually a percentage of total sales revenues. 3. Competitive Budgeting This approach is also called competitive-parity approach. Like the previous methods, this one is easy to use. All that is needed is information on what competitors are budgeting for marketing, which can be found by reading published materials on these organizations or by studying their annual reports. Because this method begins by assuming that some amount will be spent in relation to a specific competitor, kt is nat a zero-based approach. 4. Objective-and-Task Budgeting This works exactly the way it sounds; marketing objectives are set first and then the activities or tasks to achieve them are detailed. The budget starts at nothing, which implies that it is a zero-based approach. Some called it build-up method, because an organization establishes the budget from the bottom up rather than starting with a total amount and then deciding how to spend it. C. Control Procedures (How do we know if we get there?) Controlling the plan is a marketing management function. To control effectively, the manager must know what is expected (desired results), when it is expected (progress points or milestones), who it is expected of, (responsible parties), and how expectations are to be measured (measures or metrics). Financial control of the marketing plan is achieved through budgeting and periodic reports that compare budgeted with actual expenditures. D. Evaluation Procedures (How do we know if we got there?) The ultimate test of a marketing plan’s success is the extent to which its marketing objectives are achieved. In addition to this type of analysis, results must be reviewed carefully on an objective-by-objective basis. Effective evaluation requires expected results and measurement techniques, metrics, performance standards, and a timetable for evaluation.